Calcula el volumen de un tanque horizontal inclinado (bullet tank). Ingresa diámetro, longitud, ángulo y altura de sonda para obtener el resultado en L o m³. Free volume calculator for inclined horizontal bullet tanks. Enter diameter, length, angle, and probe height to get results in Liters or m³. Horizontal tank (bullet tank) volume calculator Visit our menu for more articles and information... This interactive web tool allows you to calculate the volume of a bullet tank with hemispherical heads at an angle of inclination. Enter the tank dimensions, the probe position, and the liquid height to instantly obtain the volume in liters (L) or cubic meters (m³). Calculating the volume of an inclined tank with hemispherical heads (caps) is a complex problem because the liquid level is not uniform. This tool uses a numerical integration method to digitally "slice" the tank into thousands of small sections and sum their individual volumes. This allows for high accuracy even when the tank has an angle of inclination. However, it is not based on standards such as ISO 12917-1, as it does not account for deductions due to welds, deformations, pressure changes, or temperature variations. The volume obtained is the actual volume, not corrected to reference conditions. Why is it important to know the volume? Knowing the exact volume of a tank is not just a matter of measurement; it is a fundamental pillar for operational management, safety, and profitability. Accurate calculation is vital for several key reasons: Inventory and Logistics Management: It allows for precise stock control. Knowing how much product (fuel, raw materials, finished goods) remains in the tank is essential for planning purchases, production, and distribution logistics. Safety and Regulatory Compliance: Avoiding overfilling is critical. An inaccurate calculation can lead to spills, resulting in safety risks, costly environmental damage, and potential legal penalties. Knowing the available volume prevents these accidents. Custody Transfer and Trade: When the tank's contents are bought or sold (such as at fuel terminals or in the food industry), the exact volume is the basis of the commercial transaction. Accurate calculation ensures fair trade and is often a requirement for tax certification. The calculation is based on the disk method, an integral calculus technique. Instead of using a single geometric formula, the script treats the tank as the sum of thousands of small disks or "slices." Decomposition: First, the tank is digitally divided into its three main components: the lower head (lid), the cylindrical body, and the upper head (lid). Slicing: Each of these three sections is divided into thousands of very thin vertical slices (specifically for this calculation, we use 2000 slices per section). Calculation per Slice: For each individual slice, the calculator performs the following: It determines the exact radius of that slice (in the heads, this radius changes; in the cylinder, it is constant). It calculates the precise height of the liquid within that specific slice, compensating for the tank's tilt angle (θ). Using a function, it calculates the exact area that the liquid occupies in that slice. Total Sum: Finally, the area of each slice is multiplied by its thickness to obtain its volume. The sum of the volumes of these thousands of slices (from the three sections) results in the precise total volume shown. If you need to convert that volume to other units, you can go to our volume unit converter by clicking here.

"Calcula y visualiza la trayectoria de un proyectil con nuestro simulador de catapulta interactivo. Ajusta ángulo, fuerza, gravedad y más." Catapult Simulation Calculator Welcome to our interactive catapult simulator! This tool is designed to help you explore and understand the physics principles that govern projectile launching in a visual and entertaining way. Whether you're a student, a teacher, or simply curious about science, here you can experience how different variables affect an object's trajectory. The Physics Behind the Launch This simulator applies fundamental principles of kinematics and dynamics. In Simple Mode, we calculate the trajectory based on the equations of ideal parabolic motion, where only gravity affects the projectile once launched. In Advanced Mode, the simulation is more complex. The initial velocity is calculated by converting work (force times arc distance) into kinetic energy. Additionally, air resistance (drag), a force that opposes motion and depends on the speed and shape of the object, and wind, which alters the horizontal velocity of the projectile, are introduced. As a reminder, gravity is not uniform across the planet due to various factors, so it is recommended to calculate it based on your location on the planet. You can do so here: Local gravity calculator Calculators

Calcule la densidad del aire de forma precisa con nuestra herramienta online. Utiliza las fórmulas CIPM-2007 (Completa, Exponencial y Simplificada) para obtener resultados exactos a partir de la temperatura, presión y humedad. Desarrollada por Axotek Error Calculator Visit our menu for more articles and information... In our daily lives, "error" is synonymous with mistake, with failure, but in the world of metrology, the science of measurements, error is not a failure, it is an inevitable reality and more importantly, it is the key to understanding the true value of a measurement. So why is understanding and quantifying error so crucial? The answer is simple: it builds trust. Metrology is based on a simple yet profound idea: no measurement is perfect, and measuring is comparing the magnitude of an unknown object with a reasonably known standard. In this process, there will always be a small difference between the value we obtain and the "true value." This difference is what we call error, and this process is commonly known as calibration. In addition to this process, the uncertainty of the measurement must also be presented. Therefore, a measurement performed and expressed correctly is not just a number, but a number accompanied by its uncertainty, which is an honest statement of the limits of our measuring capacity. We don't say "this measures 5 meters," but rather "this measures 5 meters, with an uncertainty of ± 1 millimeter." This small clarification is what transforms a simple observation into reliable and useful scientific data. Understanding and quantifying error and its uncertainty is not a purely academic exercise; It is the cornerstone upon which confidence in any measurement is built. Without a clear statement of its error (or more formally, its uncertainty), a numerical result lacks scientific and technical value. The importance of this quantification is based on several metrological principles: It establishes Reliability and Traceability: Quantifying the error is the first step in determining the uncertainty of a measurement. This uncertainty is what allows us to link our result, through an unbroken chain of comparisons, with national and international reference standards. This metrological traceability is what guarantees that a kilogram measured in Mexico is equivalent to a kilogram measured in Germany, generating universal confidence in the result. It enables Compatibility and Comparability: How do we know if two laboratories measuring the same sample obtain "identical" results? The answer lies in the error. Two measurement results are compatible only if their uncertainty ranges overlap; this can be measured through a Normalized Error study. Without knowing the error, it is impossible to compare measurements objectively, which would paralyze international trade, scientific collaboration, and precision engineering. It facilitates technical decision-making: In industry, every "pass/fail" or "compliant/non-compliant" decision is based on a measurement. A part in an engine must have a diameter of 10 mm with a tolerance (maximum permissible error) of ±0.01 mm. Quality control consists of measuring the part and verifying that its value, considering the measurement error, is within this accepted range. Incorrect error management leads to production failures and economic losses. The two most common types of errors in measuring equipment are: 1. Systematic Error (or bias) This is an error that remains constant or varies predictably in repeated measurements. It is like having a scale that consistently shows 0.5 kg too high; No matter how many times you weigh the same object, you will always have that deviation. How is it dealt with?: Systematic error, once identified, can and should be corrected. If you know your scale adds 0.5 kg, simply subtract that amount from each measurement. This is why periodic calibration of instruments is essential. 2. Random Error This is the type of unpredictable error that causes repeated measurements of the same object to yield slightly different results. These are the small fluctuations that we cannot completely control. How is it dealt with?: Random error cannot be eliminated, but its effect can be minimized. The most powerful tool for this is statistics. By taking multiple measurements and calculating the average, the impact of these random fluctuations tends to cancel out, bringing us closer to a more representative value. However, if the error is outside the accuracy class of the equipment, it is usually considered that the equipment is no longer suitable and should be replaced. Therefore, uncertainty is the quantification of the "doubt" that remains about the result after correcting for all possible errors. It is a numerical range (e.g., ±0.01 mm) that indicates where the true value is most likely to lie. This uncertainty takes into account both random errors that we could not eliminate and any imperfections in our correction of systematic errors. In short, error is the deviation, and uncertainty is the quantification of our doubt about how well we know that deviation. If you would like to learn more about uncertainty, you can visit our article by clicking here .

Calculadora orbital para la velocidad de escape y velocidad orbital. Introduce masa, radio y altitud para obtener v(e), v(orb) y el Radio de Schwarzschild. Escape Velocity Calculator Visit our menu for more articles and information... Everything in space is a delicate balance. A moving object, like a rocket or an asteroid, has inertia and wants to travel in a straight line forever. However, the immense gravitational force of a massive body (like a planet or a star) constantly attracts it, trying to make it fall. From the interaction between these two forces arise the fundamental concepts of orbital motion. What is Orbital Velocity? Orbital velocity (vorb) is the perfect "equilibrium point"—the exact speed at which an object must move laterally so that the curvature of its fall (caused by gravity) perfectly matches the curvature of the planet. Imagine you're on an incredibly tall tower and you fire a cannonball. If you fire slowly, it falls to Earth. If you fire faster, it travels farther before falling. If you fire at the exact orbital velocity, the cannonball "falls" perpetually, but the Earth curves "away" from it at the same rate. The cannonball never lands: it's now in orbit. It's in a constant state of free fall, but falling around the planet, not towards it. What is Escape Velocity? Now, what happens if you fire that cannonball even faster? Escape velocity (ve) is the point of no return; it is the minimum speed at which the object's kinetic energy is so great that the pull of gravity, although slowing it down, is never enough to stop it or change its path back. The object breaks its closed orbit and escapes the planet's gravitational "well," traveling indefinitely into deep space on an open trajectory (parabolic or hyperbolic). The Absolute Limit: Schwarzschild Radius Physics takes this concept to its most fascinating extreme. How dense would an object have to be for its escape velocity to equal the speed of light (the theoretical maximum speed in the universe)? The Schwarzschild radius (Rs) answers this question. It is the radius to which you would have to compress the entire mass of a body for its surface gravity to be so intense that not even light could escape. This is the threshold that defines the event horizon of a black hole. These three metrics are not just numbers; they are the principles that dictate how satellites orbit our world, how we send probes to other planets, and how we understand the most extreme objects in the cosmos. The formula for escape velocity is:

Calculadora de Conversión de Ángulos: Convierte fácilmente entre grados, minutos, segundos y radianes. Herramienta precisa con soporte para múltiples decimales, interfaz intuitiva y diseño limpio. ¡Perfecta para estudiantes, ingenieros y profesionales! Angle and Radian Unit Converter Angle unit converters are essential tools in numerous technical fields and applications for several reasons, pressure unit converters play a fundamental role in standardization, accuracy and efficiency in numerous technical and scientific fields, contributing significantly to interoperability and the advancement of global technology. Other Converters: -Pressure - Temperature - Flow

Calculadora de perfil de velocidad por medio del numero de Reynolds. Speed profile correction Welcome to our advanced engineering calculator, a fundamental tool for professionals who demand maximum accuracy in flow measurement. This calculator addresses a key phenomenon in fluid dynamics: velocity profile correction based on the Reynolds Number. In any pipe, the fluid velocity is not uniform across the entire cross-section. The shape of this "velocity profile" changes drastically depending on whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. Flow meters, especially those whose operating principle is velocity, are extremely sensitive to these changes, and failure to account for them is one of the main sources of error in industrial measurement. Why is Velocity Profile Correction Crucial? The velocity distribution of a fluid within a pipe is key to understanding a meter's performance. In Laminar Flow (Re < 2000): The fluid moves in ordered layers. The velocity profile is parabolic (bullet-like), with maximum velocity in the center of the pipe and zero velocity at the walls. In Turbulent Flow (Re > 4000): The movement is chaotic and eddy. This results in a much flatter and more uniform velocity profile across most of the pipe diameter. Flowmeters are typically calibrated for a specific flow profile (usually for developed profiles). When the Reynolds Number of your process changes (due to variations in velocity, viscosity, or temperature), the velocity profile also changes. A meter calibrated for turbulent flow will give an incorrect reading if the flow becomes laminar, and vice versa. Our calculator solves this problem by adjusting the flow reading based on the current flow rate, determined by the Reynolds Number you provide. If you don't know the Reynolds Number, you can calculate it in the following calculator or here. If you require more information on speed profile correction, you can consult our article: Profile Correction

"Descubre los tres tipos de metrología: científica, industrial y legal, y su importancia en la precisión de las mediciones. Desde investigaciones avanzadas hasta la protección del consumidor, te explicamos cómo esta ciencia garantiza que nuestras medidas sean confiables y justas en todos los ámbitos." What is Metrology? In simple words! Go to home What is Metrology and Why is it So Important? Metrology, simply put, is the science of measurement. But it’s not just about exact numbers and figures; it’s the art and technique of making sure those measurements are reliable, accurate and consistent. Think of all the ways we measure – from the weight of ingredients in a recipe to the distance between planets. Without metrology, the modern world as we know it simply wouldn’t work. Have you ever wondered how a screw made in one country fits perfectly into a machine made in another part of the world? That's where metrology comes in. It gives us the standards that allow us all to work from the same baseline, eliminating the "small differences" that could cause big problems. It's the reason why the medicines you buy have exactly the dosage you need, or why the gallons of gasoline you pay for are actually full gallons (notwithstanding a few exceptions outside the law). Who Makes This Possible? Behind this science are experts who check and fine-tune measuring tools so that they do not deviate even a thousandth from their target. These people, metrologists , are constantly checking equipment, from the scales in a jewelry store to the dimensions of components in satellites orbiting the Earth. Their mission is to maintain precision in every measurement, no matter how small or large. Why Should You Care About Metrology? Imagine a world where we couldn't be sure that the money in a bank is measured correctly, or that the speed in your car is correctly calculated. Without metrology, confidence in measurements would be lost, and with it, many of the systems we rely on every day, which is why in some countries, this science is regulated by the Ministry of Economy. Ultimately, metrology is not just a science, but a guarantee. It ensures that we can trust what we measure and that the data is the same no matter where you are in the world. It is the silent foundation that makes many things in our lives run smoothly, and it is also a combination of science, laws and regulations. Did you know that metrology is divided into three key areas? Each has its own focus, but all are essential to maintaining measurement accuracy and reliability. Here I'll explain them in simple terms: 1. Scientific Metrology Scientific metrology is the foundation of everything. Imagine this area as the foundation of a house: everything else depends on it. In this field, scientists are dedicated to researching and developing the most accurate measurements possible. They establish universal units of measurement and create methods so that we all measure with the same accuracy. For example, when we talk about the kilogram, the second, or the meter, we are talking about units that have been defined through this metrology. And it's not just a matter of measuring once and that's it: this field is also dedicated to constantly improving those measurements, because we are always seeking greater precision. This is why scientific metrology is frequently updated to include new discoveries that allow for more detailed measurements. 2. Industrial Metrology Then we have industrial metrology, which is the "day-to-day" aspect of metrology in the world of production and manufacturing. It focuses on ensuring that products, from cars to smartphones, are manufactured to the exact measurements they require. Here, precision is crucial for each part of a product to fit correctly and function as it should. Imagine you have a production line in an aircraft engine factory. Industrial metrology ensures that each manufactured part meets the exact size and shape requirements, which is essential for safety and proper functioning. It also involves constant quality control to avoid any deviations that could affect the final product. This type of metrology is key in industries such as automotive, electronics, and pharmaceuticals, where even a small error can have significant consequences. 3. Legal Metrology Finally, legal metrology is what protects everyone in their daily lives. This area deals with measurements that impact justice, security, and commerce. This is where regulations and laws come into play, and their goal is to protect consumers and ensure that all measurements are fair and reliable. Think about when you buy gasoline. Legal metrology ensures that the liter of gasoline you pay for is actually a full liter. The same goes for scales in supermarkets or pharmacies, where measurements must be accurate so you don't overpay or underpay. Metrologists in this area work with regulators and companies to verify that everything is calibrated correctly and complies with the law. In short, these three types of metrology work together to ensure that measurements in science, industry, and everyday life are accurate, reliable, and fair. Do you see how each area has its own function, but they all complement each other? Scientific metrology provides the foundation, industrial metrology ensures the accuracy of the products we use, and legal metrology protects the consumer. It's an invisible network of trust that we all rely on, even though we often don't notice it. And what role does calibration play? Calibration is a practical process within metrology used to ensure that measuring instruments (such as scales, thermometers, or clocks) are measuring correctly. Over time, with use, and environmental conditions, all instruments can begin to lose accuracy. Calibration is responsible for adjusting these instruments, comparing them to a reference standard, and correcting any deviations so that their measurements are accurate. The Relationship Between Metrology and Calibration We can say that metrology establishes the rules of the game, and calibration ensures that the players follow those rules. In other words, metrology provides the standards and structure that give validity to each measurement, and calibration is the tool that allows us to meet those standards in the real world. Every time we calibrate an instrument, we are applying the principles of metrology to ensure that the equipment operates within acceptable accuracy limits. Without metrology, we would have no clear reference to determine whether an instrument measures accurately or not, and without calibration, we would not be able to maintain that accuracy over the long term. Why Is It Important? The relationship between metrology and calibration is crucial in virtually every area, from product manufacturing to medicine. For example, in the pharmaceutical industry, the exact quantities of ingredients in a medicine depend on the precision of measuring equipment, which must be calibrated to meet international standards. In the automotive industry, the safety of a car also depends on the precise and consistent measurements of each part. Uncertainty is an important part of calibration, but what is uncertainty? See the related article: Uncertainty If you have any questions about a topic, ask us. Mail

Conversores de unidades, Presión, Flujo, Caudal, Temperatura, etc. Unit converter Free, fast, and accurate online unit converters. Convert between various physical and scientific quantities with accurate results. An intuitive interface, no registration required, and accessible from any device. The perfect tool for students, travelers, and professionals who need reliable, instant conversions. What sets us apart? When performing a conversion, you can view the same unit in many other units so you don't have to look it up again. HOME Pressure Unit Converter Temperature Unit Converter Flow Unit Converter Mass Flow Unit Converter Volume Unit Converter Mass Unit Converter Length Unit Converter Angle Unit Converter If you work with numbers, we can make your projects easier. We're always adding new converters, and if you'd like us to add one, feel free to share your requests with us via email or in the Contact section. Request... Name Last name E-mail Application Request

Calcule la densidad del aire de forma precisa con nuestra herramienta online. Utiliza las fórmulas CIPM-2007 (Completa, Exponencial y Simplificada) para obtener resultados exactos a partir de la temperatura, presión y humedad. Desarrollada por Axotek Air Density Calculator Visit our menu for more articles and information... Air, the mixture of gases that surrounds us, is often perceived as immaterial, almost nonexistent. However, like any other substance, it possesses measurable physical properties that are fundamental to countless natural and technological processes. One of the most crucial is density, a measure of the amount of air mass contained within a given volume. Although invisible, air density is a powerful force, an essential parameter whose precise calculation is vital in fields ranging from meteorology and aviation to high-precision metrology. How is Air Density Determined? The Evolution of the Formula In its most basic form, air density can be approximated using the Ideal Gas Law. However, for scientific and engineering applications requiring high precision, this formula is insufficient. Real air is not an ideal gas; its molecules interact, and its composition varies, especially with humidity. For this reason, the international scientific community, through the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM), has developed standardized formulas. The most recent and accurate is the CIPM-2007 formula. This complex equation not only considers the three main variables: Atmospheric pressure (p): At higher pressures, air molecules are compressed, and density increases. Temperature (T): When air is heated, its molecules expand, occupying more volume, which decreases its density. Relative humidity (RH): Interestingly, humid air is less dense than dry air. This is because the water molecule (H₂O) has a lower molar mass than nitrogen (N₂) and oxygen (O₂), the main components of air. As humidity increases, water molecules displace heavier molecules, reducing the total mass in the same volume. The CIPM-2007 formula goes further, incorporating correction factors such as the compressibility factor (Z), which adjusts the behavior of real air versus ideal air, and the mole fraction of carbon dioxide (CO₂), recognizing its impact on the molar mass of dry air. Practical Applications: Where and How is it Used? Accurate determination of air density is essential in a multitude of disciplines: Aeronautics and Aerospace: This is perhaps the most obvious field, as the lift that allows an aircraft to fly directly depends on the density of the air flowing over its wings. At higher altitudes, the air is less dense, requiring the aircraft to fly faster to generate the same lift. The efficiency of jet engines and the calculation of aerodynamic drag are also intrinsically linked to this property. Meteorology and Climatology: Differences in air density are the fundamental driver of climate, as warm, less dense air rises, while cold, denser air descends, creating convection currents. These movements generate the high and low pressure systems that dictate wind patterns, cloud formation, and, ultimately, the weather we experience. Metrology (The Science of Measurement): In calibration laboratories, where mass measurements are made with the highest precision, air density is a critical factor since every object on Earth is subject to a buoyant force exerted by the surrounding air (Archimedes' principle). To determine an object's true mass, it is necessary to calculate and subtract the weight of the air it displaces; this is called the buoyancy correction. Without this precise correction for air density, highly accurate mass measurements would be impossible. Ballistics and Sports: The trajectory of any projectile, from a bullet to a golf ball, is affected by air resistance. This resistance is directly proportional to air density. On a cold, dry day (denser air), a golf ball will travel a shorter distance than on a warm, humid day (less dense air). How is it calculated? The equation with the greatest accuracy for calculating air density, and which offers the greatest uncertainty attributable to the mathematical model, is the one recommended by CIPM-2007. The final value of the density uncertainty will depend largely on the quality of the instruments used to measure the ambient conditions, their calibration, and the stability of those conditions. However, in certain calibration applications, depending on the level of uncertainty required, simplified versions of the equation can be used. These approximations, although useful in less demanding contexts, entail additional uncertainties compared to the full CIPM-2007 formulation, so in practice there are three formulas for its calculation: Simplified Normal: Where ρa = Air density in kg/m³ p = Barometric pressure in hPa ℎ𝑟 = Relative humidity in % t = Air temperature in °C Simplified Exponential: Where ρa = Air density in kg/m³ p = Barometric pressure in hPa ℎ𝑟 = Relative humidity in % t = Air temperature in °C Complete: Where ρa = Air density in kg/m³ p = Barometric pressure in Pa T = Absolute temperature in K R = Universal gas constant (8.314 472 J/mol K) Ma = Molar mass of dry air (0.028 965 46 kg/mol) Mv = Molar mass of water vapor (0.018 015 28 kg/mol) Xv = Molar fraction of water vapor in humid air Z = Compressibility factor of humid air Mole fraction: Where ƒ = Enhancement factor, functions p and T. (This is a small correction for the non-ideal behavior of water vapor.) psv (T) = saturation water vapor pressure at temperature T. (1) p = total atmospheric pressure in Pa. (1) For psv(T), use the Wexler (1983) formulation or the adjusted version of CIMP-2007 as the recommended model. Compressibility factor Z: Where: A0=1.58123×10−6 A1=−2.9331×10−8 A2=1.1043×10−10 B0=5.707×10−6 B1=−2.051×10−8 C0=1.9898×10−4 C1=-2.376x10-6 D=1.83×10−11 E=-0.765×10−8 P=Pressure in Pa T=Temperature in K t=Temperature in °C Air density serves as a link between thermodynamics, fluid dynamics, and atmospheric sciences; its correct quantification is essential. A cornerstone for validating climate models, designing more efficient vehicles, and ensuring the traceability and comparability of scientific measurements worldwide. A small error in its calculation can propagate and generate significant deviations in results that depend on it. Air density is much more than just a textbook figure. It is a dynamic and fundamental property that governs flight, drives the weather, and underlies the precision of modern science. Understanding and measuring it accurately allows us not only to predict the behavior of the natural world, but also to develop technology that challenges its limits.

Conversor de unidades de Presion, °C, °F, K, °R, etc. Temperature Unit Converter Temperature, that intangible quality that determines everything from the weather to chemical reactions in our bodies, has been an object of scientific fascination for millennia. Its study represents one of humanity's most significant intellectual endeavors, one that intertwines physics, philosophy, and technological ingenuity. Temperature, in its purest form, is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles that make up a substance. This microscopic definition is expressed mathematically as: Where: ⟨Ek⟩ = average kinetic energy per particle kB = Boltzmann constant (1.380649 × 10⁻²³ J/K) T = absolute temperature in Kelvin This fundamental relationship connects the observable world with the quantum realm, revealing that what we perceive as "heat" is actually the frantic dance of atoms and molecules. In temperature, everything starts from absolute zero: The concept of absolute zero (-273.15°C or 0 K) is not merely a mathematical convention, but a physical limit imposed by the laws of thermodynamics. The third law formally states: Where S represents the entropy of the system and S₀ its value in the ground state, in practice, this principle implies that reaching absolute zero is impossible, although modern laser cooling techniques have achieved nanokelvin temperatures, approaching this cosmic limit. The path to precise temperature measurement began with qualitative devices such as Galileo's thermoscope (1592), which lacked a numerical scale. The major innovation came with liquid-in-glass thermometers, whose operation is based on the thermal expansion equation Where: ΔV = volume change V₀ = initial volume β = coefficient of thermal expansion ΔT = temperature change Later, more robust and specialized sensors were developed for each specific situation, for example: Thermocouples: These work through the Seebeck effect, which is the union of two different metals. The most common are type K (chromel-alumel) and type J (iron-constantan). When subjected to temperature changes, they generate an electrical potential difference. These sensors are very robust, have a long measuring range, are inexpensive, and have a very fast response time. However, their disadvantage is that this potential difference is not linear, and their accuracy is not very good. RTDs: They work through a thermoresistive effect, it is an electrical resistance that increases its value in ohms (Ω) as its temperature increases. They exist in various materials, the most common is platinum (PT100), which indicates that it has a resistance of 100 Ω at 0 ° C, but it can also be PT1000, which has 1000 Ω at 0 ° C. This value can be measured and is known as R₀. They exist in different classes and different sensitivities. They can be very precise if they are calibrated through characterization by the Callendar Van Dusen method or the ITS-90 method, in which the behavior of the resistance vs. temperature is obtained through coefficients that are entered into some industrial and scientific readers. Their disadvantages are that they have limited ranges at high temperatures, normally and commercially they only measure up to 660 ° C, they are slow to take the measurement (stabilize), and they are very prone to corrosion. They can crack and stop measuring due to thermal stress (going from low to high temperatures in a short period of time). Even in recent years, infrared thermography (pyrometers and thermal cameras) has gained significant importance due to its ability to measure in hostile or high-temperature environments, thus avoiding contact temperature measurements and preventing damage or accidents. This technology measures the temperature of an object by detecting the infrared radiation it emits, based on the Stefan-Boltzmann law. This technology has advanced significantly since the invention of the bolometer around 1880 by Samuel Pierpont Langley, and with thermal cameras, predictive maintenance can be performed and failures can be anticipated. In measuring thermal thermography, two terms normally arise: heat and temperature, which we explain: Heat is a form of energy in transit that flows spontaneously from warmer to colder bodies. Its study revolutionized science in the 19th century with the development of thermodynamics: Molecular kinetic energy: Heat manifests as the disordered motion of atoms and molecules (kinetic theory) First Law of Thermodynamics: ΔU = Q - W, where heat (Q) contributes to the internal energy (U) and W represents the thermodynamic work performed by the system on its environment. Transmission methods: Conduction (solids), convection (fluids), and radiation (vacuum) Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles. Understanding it took centuries of development: • Historical scales: From the arbitrary degrees of Fahrenheit (1724) to the absolute Kelvin scale (1854) • Absolute zero (-273.15°C): Thermodynamic limit where molecular motion ceases • Instrumentation: Evolution from Galileo's thermoscopes to modern optical pyrometers. To measure temperature, we use different reference scales, each with its own characteristics and applications. For example: Celsius (°C) Definition: Based on the melting (0°C) and boiling (100°C) points of water at 1 atm. Usage: Metric system, science, and everyday life in most of the world. Incidentally, in some places, the scale is still called degrees Celsius. However, metrologically, this term has been obsolete since 1948, when the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) changed it to avoid confusion with the term angular unit (1/100 of a degree). Conversion formula: Kelvin (K) Definition: Absolute scale where 0 K = -273.15°C (absolute zero, absence of molecular motion). Use: Thermodynamics, quantum physics, and astronomy. Conversion formula: Fahrenheit (°F) Definition: Originally based on a mixture of ice, water, and sal ammoniac (0°F) and human body temperature (~96°F, later adjusted to 98.6°F). Use: Primarily in the U.S. and some English-speaking countries. Conversion formula: Rankine (°R) Definition: Absolute scale based on Fahrenheit (0°R = -459.67°F = absolute zero). Use: Thermal engineering in English systems. Conversion formula: Temperature scales are tools for translating human experience into the laws of physics. Their diversity reflects both historical and technical needs, but they all converge on one principle: quantifying thermal energy, from the most extreme cold in the universe to the intense heat of stars. GO TO CONVERTERS...

Herramienta de ingeniería para determinar flash vaporization en mezclas propano/butano. Calcula Pv, entropía y fase con Raoult o Margules. LPG Vaporization and Entropy Calculator Visit our menu for more articles and information... Professional Thermodynamics Calculator This specialized tool determines whether flash vaporization will occur in LPG (propane and butane) mixtures as they pass through an orifice plate or valve. Ideal for: Process engineers Liquefied gas technicians Thermodynamics students The tool calculates: Vapor pressure (Pv) of the mixture using: Antoine's equation for pure components Raoult's law or Margules model for the mixture Entropy of vaporization (ΔS) Resulting phase (liquid/vapor) comparing P₂ vs P₂ Visual Results Pie chart: Shows % liquid/vapor in the mixture Immediate alert: Detects whether vaporization will occur (P₂ < P₂) Technical details: Partial pressures, model used, thermodynamic data How Do We Calculate the Vaporization Rate of Your LPG Mixture? Our calculator uses advanced thermodynamic principles to predict whether your propane and butane mixture will undergo flash vaporization when passing through a restriction. Here's how to explain the process in simple language: 1. We Determine the Pure Vapor Pressures For each component (propane and butane), we calculate the pressure exerted by their vapors at the temperature you specify. We use proven scientific equations (Antoine's Equation) that mathematically relate temperature to vapor pressure. 2. We calculate the vapor pressure of your mixture Depending on the model you choose: Ideal Model (Raoult): We simply average the pressures based on the percentage of each gas Real Model (Margules): We adjust the calculation considering how different molecules interact with each other 3. We compare it to your downstream pressure The moment of truth: if the pressure after the restriction (P₂) is lower than the vapor pressure we calculated, vaporization will occur! This is because the liquid cannot remain stable at that pressure. 4. We show you what percentage vaporizes We don't just say "yes" or "no," but we calculate exactly what part of your mixture will change to vapor and what part will remain liquid, representing this in an easy-to-understand graph. 5. We calculate the energy involved We determine the entropy of vaporization, which tells you how much energy is required for this phase change—valuable information for designing efficient systems. Model Limitations 1. Range of Validity -Temperature: -50°C to 100°C (outside this range, results may lose accuracy). -Pressure: Up to 20 bar (not applicable for cryogenic or ultra-high-pressure conditions). -Composition: Only valid for binary mixtures of propane/butane. Does not consider: Impurities (methane, ethane, pentane). Additives (odorizers, corrosion inhibitors). 2. Calculation Assumptions Raoult's Law: Assumes ideal behavior (no molecular interactions). Margules Model: Considers interactions, but with fixed coefficients (A₁₂ = 0.143, A₂₁ = 0.128). Antoine Equation: Reduced accuracy near the critical point (T > Tc). 3. Factors Not Considered -Kinetic effects: Does not evaluate expansion rate or residence time. -Heat losses: Assumes an adiabatic process (no heat exchange with the environment). -Restriction geometry: Does not take into account the type of plate/valve (orifice, globe, etc.). Uncertainty in Results Vapor pressure (Pv) ±2-5% Antoine equation (experimental setup) Composition ±1% Rounding in % propane/butane Temperature ±0.5°C Thermocouple accuracy (if actual measurement is used) Margules model ±3-8% Approximate interaction coefficients *Reference values for standard conditions (25°C, 70/30 mixture). Recommendations for Professional Use ✔ Validate with specialized software for critical designs. ✔ Consider a safety factor of 10-15% in industrial applications. ✔ Do not use for: Pressure vessel design (ASME/API standards require more rigorous methods). Blends with >5% other hydrocarbons. Interpretation: If P₂ is within the uncertainty range of Pv, further analysis is recommended. Final Note This tool is useful for preliminary estimates, but technical decisions should be based on international standards (API, ISO) and experimental measurements.

Definicion de gravedad, gravedad local, calculadra de gravedad local. Local gravity Gravitational acceleration varies depending on latitude and elevation due to the geometric shape and rotation of the Earth. Gravity is one of the four fundamental forces of physics (gravity, electromagnetism, strong force and weak force), it is a phenomenon that is appreciated only on a large scale such as in planets or galaxies, this is because it is the weakest force known, it is presented as an attraction in bodies with a lot of mass or energy as a consequence of a curvature of space-time. Gravity is not uniform across the Earth's surface due to several factors: Shape of the Earth: Our planet is not a perfect sphere; it is an oblate spheroid, flattened at the poles and bulging at the equator. This means that at the poles you are closer to the Earth's center than at the equator, which slightly increases gravity in those regions. However, the reality is even more complex: variations in the planet's density and irregularities in the Earth's surface make the Earth's true shape more like a geoid. Earth's rotation: The Earth's rotation generates a centrifugal force that partially counteracts gravity, especially at the equator, where this force is greatest, thus reducing effective gravity. Altitude: The higher the altitude, that is, the further you are from sea level, the less gravity there is, since you are further from the Earth's center. At Axotek, we listen to our users. If you need a calculator to make your work and/or projects easier, you can contact us, and as soon as possible, we'll have it online at no cost to you. Request calculator